Scorecard of Russia 2018-01-01 00:00:00

Russia 2018
43.1

International Actions

46.3%
Security Council Actions

81.3%
Inclusion of WPS-sensitive Language in All Security Council Open Debates

Criteria100% of the statements made by a state during the Security Council open debates should include WPS-sensitive language.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia had 13 out of 16 Open Debates in 2018 where it made statements related to Women, Peace and Security.
Comment

WILPF/PeaceWomen themes covered:

General Women, Peace and Security:  0/16

Conflict Prevention:  2/16

Disarmament:  1/16

Displacement and Humanitarian Response:  2/16

Participation: 2/16

Peace Processes: 4/16

Peacekeeping: 3/16

Protection: 3/16

Reconstruction and Peacebuilding: 0/16

Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: 2/16

Implementation: 2/16

Justice, Rule of Law, SSR: 7/16

Human Rights: 0/16

MethodologyThe number of debates in which a state has used WPS-sensitive language at least once out of a total number of all Security Council open debates per year.
Resources

1. "Meeting Records Archive," United Nations Security Council, 2018. Accessed May 20, 2019. 

n/a
Inclusion of WPS-sensitive Language in the Security Council Open Debates on the Threats Caused by Terrorist Acts

Criteria100% of the statements made by a state during the Security Council thematic open debates should include WPS-sensitive language.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisInformation is currently not available.
MethodologyThe number of debates in which a state has used WPS-sensitive language at least once out of a total number of Security Council open debates on the threats caused by terrorist acts.
Resources

1. "Meeting Records Archive," United Nations Security Council, 2018. Accessed May 20, 2019. 

100.0%
Inclusion of WPS-sensitive Language in the Security Council Open Debates on the Maintenance of International Peace and Security

Criteria100% of the statements made by a state during the Security Council thematic open debates should include WPS-sensitive language.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia had 4 out of 4 Open Debates on the maintenance of international peace and security in 2018 where it made statements related to Women, Peace and Security.
Comment

WILPF/PeaceWomen themes covered:

General Women, Peace and Security: 0/4

Conflict Prevention:1/4

Disarmament: 0/4

Displacement and Humanitarian Response: 0/4

Participation:1/4

Peace Processes: 0/4

Peacekeeping: 0/4

Protection: 1/4

Reconstruction and Peacebuilding: 0/4

Sexual and Gender-Based Violence: 0/4

Implementation: 1/4

Justice, Rule of Law, SSR: 3/4

Human Rights: 0/4

MethodologyThe number of debates in which a state has used WPS-sensitive language at least once out of a total number of Security Council open debates on the maintenance of international peace and security.
Resources

1. "Meeting Records Archive," United Nations Security Council, 2018. Accessed May 20, 2019. 

0.0%
Inclusion of WPS-sensitive Language in the Security Council Open Debates on the Protection of Civilians

Criteria100% of the statements made by a state during the Security Council thematic open debates should include WPS-sensitive language.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia had 0 out of 1 Open Debates on the Protection of Civilians in 2018 where it made statements related to Women, Peace and Security.
Comment

N/A 

MethodologyThe number of debates in which a state has used WPS-sensitive language at least once out of a total number of Security Council open debates on the protection of civilians.
Resources

1. "Meeting Records Archive," United Nations Security Council, 2018. Accessed May 20, 2019. 

50.0%
The Use of Veto

CriteriaA state should not apply its veto right.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

Russia exercised its right to veto draft resolutions in two out of a total of three instances of veto application. Russia exercised its veto right on a draft resolution (S/2018/156) addressing the Middle East, specifically surrounding sanctions in Yemen. Russia exercised its veto right a second time on a draft resolution (S/2018/321) addressing the Middle East, specifically the establishment of an investigative mechanism to establish responsibility for the use of chemical weapons in Syria. 

Neither draft resolution contained any gender-specific references. 

Methodology100% - No veto right was used;
75% - A state uses its veto right in less than (or equals to) 50% of vetoed draft resolutions (no gender-sensitive language);
50% - A state uses its veto right in more than 50% of vetoed draft resolutions (no gender-sensitive language);
25% - A state uses its veto right in less than (or equals to) 50% of vetoed draft resolutions (with gender-sensitive language);
0% - A state uses its veto right in more than 50% of vetoed draft resolutions (with gender-sensitive language).
Resources

  1. "Meeting Records." The United Nations, 2018. Accessed May 29 2019. 

  2. "Veto List," United Nations Dag Hammarskjold Library. Accessed May 2019. 

  3. "Vetoed Draft Resolution (S/2018/321)," The United Nations Security Council, 2018. Accessed May 29 2019. 

  4. "Meeting Record" [discussing Russia's reasoning for vetoing S/2018/321], The United Nations, 2018. Accessed May 29 2019. 

  5. "Vetoed Draft Resolution (S/2018/156)," The United Nations Security Council, 2018. Accessed May 29 2019. 

  6. "Meeting Record [discussing Russia's reasoning for vetoing S/2018/156]," The United Nations, 2018. Accessed May 29 2019. 

 

0.0%
Commitments Intended to Strengthen the Implementation of the WPS Agenda

CriteriaAll WILPF/PeaceWomen themes should be covered in the WPS commitments.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisIn its statements made at the 2018 Open Debate on Women, Peace and Security, Russia covered the following WILPF/PeaceWomen themes:
General Women, Peace and Security
Conflict Prevention
Disarmament
Participation
Peace Processes
Protection
Sexual and Gender-Based Violence
Peacekeeping
Displacement and Humanitarian Response
Human Rights
Justice, Rule of Law and Security Sector Reform
Reconstruction and Peacebuilding
Implementation
Comment

In 2018, Russia neither reported on old commitments nor identified new commitments. 

MethodologyThe number of WILPF/PeaceWomen themes emphasised in a statement identifies the final percentage received by a state
Resources

  1. Call to Action on 2015 Commitments [homepage, where commitments for years 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019 are located], WILPF, 2015. Accessed May 29 2019. 

  2. UNSC WPS Debate Commitments 2018 [PDF of WILPF analysis], WILPF, 2018. Accessed May 29 2019.

0.0%
Women, Peace and Security Financing

0.0%
Balance Between UN Women Total Contribution and Arms Sales Revenue

CriteriaTotal contribution to UN Women should increase overtime while Arms Sales Revenue should decrease overtime.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

UN Women Contribution remained the same ($0); Arms Transfer Revenue decreased.

Russia was the sixth-largest spender in 2018 (the first time Russia's rank fell outside the top five since 2006). The top 15 countries spent $1470 billion (81%) of global military expenditure.

Comment

2018: 

Military expenditure: $61.4 billion. 

UN Women Contribution: $0

2017: 

Military expenditure: $66.5 billion

UN Women Contribution: $0

MethodologyA grade varies depending on circumstances (i.e.: positive/negative consistency in spendings, ratio between the arms transfer revenue and the UN Women contribution, etc.):
UN Women Contribution increases; Arms Transfer Revenue decreases (90-100%);
UN Women Contribution increases; Arms Transfer Revenue does not change (79-89%);
UN Women Contribution does not change; Arms Transfer Revenue decreases (68-78%);
UN Women Contribution does not change; Arms Transfer Revenue does not change (57-67%);
UN Women Contribution decreases; Arms Transfer Revenue decreases (46-56%);
UN Women Contribution increases; Arms Transfer Revenue increases (35-45%);
UN Women Contribution decreases; Arms Transfer Revenue does not change (24-34%);
UN Women Contribution does not change; Arms Transfer Revenue increases (13-23%);
UN Women Contribution decreases; Arms Transfer Revenue increases (0-12%).
Resources
  1. "Core Resources: Top 25 Donors 2018," UN Women, 2018. Accessed May 21 2019. 

  2. "Importer/Exporter TIV Tables," Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 2019. Accessed May 21 2019. 

  3. "Arms Transfers and Military Spending," SIPRI, 2019. Accessed May 21 2019. 

  4. "Trends in World Military Expenditure," SIPRI, 2019. Accessed May 21, 2019. 

60.5%
International Gender and Human Rights Indicators

72.3%
Ranking via Gender Inequality Index (GII)

CriteriaA state should be ranked first in the Gender Inequality Index (GII).
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia was ranked 53 among 189 participating countries in 2018.
Comment

In 2017, Russia was ranked 53 of 189 countries. 

Researcher's note: The 2019 Human Development Report will not be released until November 2019, as it is being significantly re-envisioned in order to "go beyond the dominant discourse focused on income disparities."

Methodology100% is received by a state that is ranked 1st; 0% is received by a state that is ranked last.
Resources
  1. "Human Development Reports: Table 5: Gender Inequality Index," The United Nations Development Programme, 2019. Accessed August 13, 2019.

50.0%
Ranking via Global Gender Gap Index

CriteriaA state should be ranked first in the Gender Gap Index.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia was ranked 75 among 149 participating countries in 2018.
Methodology100% is received by a state that is ranked 1st; 0% is received by a state that is ranked last.
Resources

“The Global Gender Gap Report 2018,” World Economic Forum, 2018 [Russia, p. 233]. Accessed May 29, 2019.

59.1%
Ratification of International Human Rights Treaties

CriteriaA state ratifies all international human rights gender-sensitive treaties.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia has signed and possibly ratified the following International Human Rights Treaties in 2018:
Universal Declaration of Human Rights - signed
Universal Declaration of Human Rights - ratified
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - signed
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - ratified
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - signed
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - ratified
Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages - signed
Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages - ratified
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women - signed
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women - ratified
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women - signed
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women - ratified
Protocol to Prevent, Supress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, to The Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime - signed
Protocol to Prevent, Supress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, to The Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime - ratified
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others - signed
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others - ratified
Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War - signed
Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War - ratified
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II) - signed
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II) - ratified
Arms Trade Treaty - signed
Arms Trade Treaty - ratified
Comment

N/A 

Methodology100% is received by a state that has signed and ratified all International Human Rights Treaties. Ratification of a treaty provides a state with a full point; a signature (without ratification) provides a state with half of a point.
11 - 99-100%;
10 - 90%;
9 - 81%;
8 - 72%;
7 - 63%;
6 - 54%;
5 - 45%;
4 - 36%;
3 - 27%;
2 - 18%;
1 - 9%;
0 - 0%
Resources
  1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "The Yearbook of the United Nations, 1948-1949: Part I, Section V.: Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Questions," pp. 529-530, The United Nations Department of Public Information, 1950. Accessed 30 May 2019.  

  1. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: 1976; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: 1976; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women: 1981; Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: 2000: "Status of Ratification: Interactive Dashboard," United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, 2014. Accessed 30 May 2019.  

  1. "Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages," The United Nations Treaty Collection, 2019. Accessed 30 May 2019.  

  1. "Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime," The United Nations Treaty Collection, 2019. Accessed 30 May 2019.  

  1. "Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others," The United Nations Treaty Collection, 2019. Accessed 30 May 2019.  

  1. "Geneva Convention relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war," The United Nations, 2019. Accessed 30 May 2019.  

  1. Additional Protocol II: "Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977," International Committee of the Red Cross, 2019. Accessed 30 May 2019.  

  1. Arms Trade Treaty: "Arms Trade Treaty," United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, 2019. Accessed 30 May 2019. 

68.9%
Peacekeeping Operations

37.8%
Contribution of Troops, Police and Military Experts

CriteriaThere should be equal participation of women and men in peacekeeping.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia provided 14 women out of 74 peacekeepers in 2018.
Comment

Experts on Mission: 36 men, 5 women, 41 total. 

Individual Police: 19 men, 9 women, 28 total. 

Staff Officers: 5 men, 0 women, 5 total. 

Total, peacekeepers provided: 60 men, 14 women, 74 total. 

MethodologyConsidering that there should be equal participation of men and women in peacekeeping, a state that ensures 50% of its personnel are females receives 100%. Otherwise, a state earns a score that depends on the percentage of female personnel contributed by a state on the basis of the expected ratio.
Data is provided by the United Nations (Department of Peacekeeping Operations).
Resources
  1. "Contributors to UN Peacekeeping Operations by Country and Post," United Nations Peacekeeping, 2019. Accessed May 28, 2019.  

  1. "Summary of Contributions to Peackeeping by Mission, Country and Post," United Nations Peacekeeping, 2019. Accessed May 28, 2019. 

100.0%
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) Allegedly Committed by Peacekeepers

CriteriaThere should be a "zero tolerance" policy with respect to sexual exploitation and abuse.
Note*: Information on SEA is gathered based on publicly available information. Official statistics are available starting from 2015.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

Russian peacekeepers committed 0 of the 54 alleged sexual abuse and exploitation incidents in 2018. 

Comment

N/A

MethodologyIn line with the UN "zero tolerance" policy, at least one allegation of sexual abuse provides a state with 0%.
states that have not been involved in the SEA allegations receives 100%.
Resources
  1. "Conduct in UN Field Missions: Sexual Exploitation and Abuse: Allegations," The United Nations, 2018. Accessed 28 May 2019. [To obtain total # of allegations.] 

  1. "Conduct in UN Field Missions: Sexual Exploitation and Abuse: Alleged Perpetrators," The United Nations, 2018. Access 28 May 2019. [To obtain total # of perpetrators.] 

National Actions

10.0%
Prevention

40.0%
Partnership Between Womens Civil Society Organisations and the Government

CriteriaThere should be a funded and governmentally-supported women's civil society landscape.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

 

 

The Russian Federation receives 15% because: civil society in Russia is relatively institutionalized and focused upon service provision, offering certain civil society organisations (CSOs) a reasonable platform from which to do their work. However, though the government is engaged in a degree of collaboration with civil society service providers, provision of support is contingent upon these organisations’ acting in accordance with social norms. (Even then, where government funding is provided, it is inadequate.) In 2018, the space for civil society continued to shrink.

To the extent CSOs push boundaries or otherwise gain the negative attentions of the government, they are barred from receipt of government funding, subjected to a growing number of restrictions (including a recently strengthened 2012 law requiring independent groups to register as “foreign agents”-- a term that is publicly synonymous with “spy” and “traitor”-- if they receive any foreign funding and engage in loosely defined “political activity” or other activities that constitute a “threat to the interests of Russia”) and targeted. CSOs that fall in the latter category are predominantly rights-based organisations, including women’s civil society.

Researcher’s Note: there is limited English-language disaggregated data concerning women’s civil society in Russia.

Comment

Barriers to Engagement. As of early 2019, there were 216,810 civil society organisations in operation (according to the Ministry of Justice).  

In Russia, CSOs face a number of other government-imposed barriers, including burdensome reporting requirements and the state’s supervisory power over the civil society sector (which allows for interference with CSOs internal affairs). The government strictly regulates public mass events. Where protesters are involved, such regulation is often enforced through the use of excessive force. CSOs are held liable for organizers of public events who fail to inform citizens and government bodies about a decision to cancel the public event, who host unauthorized events and for filing notifications for holding a public event without indicating its purpose.

The 2012 foreign agent law, originally publicized and passed as a response to the US. Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA), has more widespread and significant domestic consequences than FARA. CSOs advocacy activities, where they draw the negative attention of the Russian government, are often considered “political activities,” which can lead to a CSOs inclusion on the “foreign agents registry”, fines and or jail time for CSO leadership. The act and subsequent amendments established a prohibition against all transactions involving finances or other assets to which an “undesirable organisation” (determined extrajudicially) is party, as well as a prohibition against the distribution of materials arising from relationships with “undesirable organisations.”

Spotlight: Grassroots. The National Center for the Prevention of Violence (ANNA), fronted by Maria Pisklakova (preeminent Russian feminist activist), is a highly active and highly effective regional organisation. Though its focus is limited to domestic violence, ANNA’s objectives are expansive: to assist survivors of domestic abuse, conduct research on and increase public awareness about domestic abuse, stigmatize domestic abuse and lobby for the increased enforcement and strengthening of bans against domestic violence. ANNA operates a domestic violence hotline, conducts trainings and a network of approximately 170 crisis centers. 

MethodologyWhen there is both financial support from the government and active collabouration between the government and civil society, a state receives from 80% to 100% depending on circumstances (i.e.: positive/negative assessment; decrease/increase in the number of projects, etc.);

When there is either only financial support from the government or only active collabouration between the government and civil society, a state receives from 60% to 79% depending on circumstances (i.e.: positive/negative assessment; decrease/increase in the number of projects, etc.);

When there is neither financial support from the government nor active collabouration between the government and civil society and where there are no restrictions applied on womens organisation, a state receives from 40% to 59% depending on circumstances (i.e.: kinds of services provided by civil society, etc.);

When there is neither both financial support from the government nor active collabouration between the government and civil society and when government provides services for women, a state receives from 20% to 39% depending on circumstances (i.e.: positive/negative assessment; decrease/increase in the number of projects, etc.);

When there is neither financial support from the government nor active collabouration between the government and civil society and when there are several restrictions on civil society, a state receives from 0% to 19% depending on circumstances (i.e.: positive/negative assessment; decrease/increase in the number of projects, etc.).
Resources
  1. “Civic Freedom Monitor: Russia”, The International Center for Non-Profit Law, 2018. Accessed June 3, 2019.  

  1. "Who Guards the Guardians? The Illusion of Civil Society in Russia," Khodorkovsky, 2018. Accessed June 3, 2019.  

  1. "The Split in Russia's Civil Society," The Carnegie Moscow Center, 2019. Accessed June 3, 2019.  

  1. “Russia CSI Report”, CIVICUS. Accessed June 3, 2019. [Extensive, though outdated, reporting on the Russian Federation's relationship with civil society.] 

  2. Russia: Government vs. Rights Groups,” Human Rights Watch, 2018. Accessed July 29, 2019.  

0.0%
Special Gender-Specific Training of Security and Law Enforcement Personnel

CriteriaSpecial gender-specific training for law enforcement and security sector should exist.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia implemented the following training standards in 2018:
Assessment of gender-sensitive training is present
Overall training objective is gender sensitive
Gender parity among trainers and trainees
Women's organisations or gender-related societal leaders are engaged to provide contextual perspective on gender within the security sector
Follow-up communication and gender-related knowledge dissemination methods are established
Comment

 

Gender-sensitive Training Objectives. Russia’s security and law enforcement objectives are not gender-sensitive. Russian security and law enforcement institutions do not assess progress in integrating gender perspectives across its security sector or even within specific programs, create recommendations for improvement, conduct follow-ups to monitor the implementation of these recommendations. Russia does not engage civil society to provide gender perspectives on the security sector.   

The Russian Federation’s National Security Strategy. Released in 2015, “The Russian Federation’s National Security Strategy,” remained at the core of Russia’s vision for domestic security in 2018. This strategy points to an ambitious Russia that seeks international prestige through increased domestic attainment and which sees constraints on its ambitions—whether domestic, regional or international— as threats to be overcome. 

Russia's value-heavy framing of its security objectives is worrying, particularly where it is paired with appeals to the unity of Russian culture and morals. Within the document, there are 14 strong references to Russian “morals,” “morality,” or “moral values” and an equal number of strong references to “tradition”; there are zero references to gender and women.

MethodologyThe criteria is determined in line with the UN Women guidelines (developed in partnership with the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) and the European Union).
5 - 100%
4 - 80%
3 - 60%
2 - 40%
1 - 20%
0 - 0%
Resources
  1. "Russian National Security Strategy, December 2015," The Kremlin [hosted by Spanish Institute for Strategic Studies (IEEE)), 2015. Accessed June 3, 2019.

  2. "Putin's War on Women: Why #MeToo Skipped Russia," Foreign Policy, 2018. Accessed June 3 2019. 

  3. “Russia: Gender and Security Sector Reform: Examples from the Ground”, DCAF ISSAT, 2018. Accessed May 14, 2018:

  4. “Inside the Russian police force answering thousands of calls for help from battered women”, PRI, March 2017. Accessed June 3, 2019. 

0.0%
National Action Plan on the Implementation of UNSC Resolution 1325 bases on WPS Themes

CriteriaA state has implemented a 1325 National Action Plan. All WILPF/PeaceWomen themes should be covered.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisThe UNSCR 1325 National Action Plan has not been developed by Russia until 2018.
Comment

In 2017, Russia announced the launch of its “national strategy of actions in the interests of women 2017-2022," to be implemented in two phases. The first phase (2017-2018) was to focus on the development of mechanisms needed for implementation of this strategy, and the second phase (2019-2022) was to focus on the implementation of measures to strengthen women’s position in the political, economic, social and cultural fields. As English and French translations of this strategy are not yet publicly available, PeaceWomen cannot offer an accurate assessment of its contents. 

PeaceWomen can, however, draw from reporting from Russian media and institutions friendly to the Russian government to note potential areas of progress and anticipate concerns surrounding its content. We can note that the development and publication of this strategy represents a step forward, signaling the Russian Federation’s desire to align itself with international norms. In earlier statements describing the strategy’s “areas of focus,” the Russian representative to the UN listed: “increasing women’s participation in political life and the decision-making process; improving their economic situation, including promoting entrepreneurship for women; creating conditions conducive to better women’s health; preventing violence and protecting women from it; and overcoming stereotypes about men’s and women’s social roles.” The regional chair of the Union of Women of Russia, in her remarks to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, has emphasized that the strategy is “based on the fact that women's rights are an integral part of General [sic] human rights.” These, too, are positive signs. 

Yet reporting on the contents point to a problematic focus on maternity, “traditional values” and the family. (In those same remarks, the regional chair of the Union of Women of Russia stated that in Russia, in 2018, women “... realize themselves not only professionally, they perform their natural function, the function of motherhood.”) PeaceWomen also notes with concern the Russian Federation’s political practice of encouraging the tokenistic participation of women to further the government’s own objectives rather than to advance gender equality and peace.

MethodologyThe grade is determined on the basis of a number of WILPF/PeaceWomen themes that are emphasized in a 1325 National Action Plan (NAP). A NAP that emphasizes all WILPF/PeaceWomen themes receives 100%.
Resources

  1. "Russian PM Medvedev Signs National Strategy of Actions in Women's Interests," Sputnik News, 2017. Accessed June 3, 2019. 
  2. "Implementation of the National Strategy for Women," Eurasian Women's Community. Accessed June 3, 2019.
  3. “Putin’s Russia promotes both women and misogyny in politics. Wait, what?” Washington Post, November 2016. Accessed June 3, 2019.
  4. Ensuring gender equality in Russian Federation to 2017 – 2025,” Natalia Nikiforova [Chair of the Pskov regional public organisation’s Union of Women of Russia’s remarks to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights], 2018. Accessed July 30, 2019. 

0.0%
Balance between the 1325 National Action Plan (NAP) Budget and Military Expenditure.

CriteriaThe 1325 National Action Plan budget should increase overtime while military expenditure should decrease overtime.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

Information is currently not available.

Comment

SIPRI estimates Russia’s military expenditure in 2017 at approximately $66,527,000 (higher in USD, but lower in percentage of GDP). 

MethodologyA grade varies depending on circumstances (i.e.: positive/negative consistency in spendings, ratio between the NAP budget and military expenditure, etc.):

NAP Budget increases; Military Expenditure decreases (90-100%)
NAP Budget increases; Military Expenditure does not change (79-89%)
NAP Budget does not change; Military Expenditure decreases (68-78%)
NAP Budget does not change; Military Expenditure does not change (57-67%)
NAP Budget decreases; Military Expenditure decreases (46-56%)
NAP Budget increases; Military Expenditure increases (35-45%)
NAP Budget decreases; Military Expenditure does not change (24-34%)
NAP Budget does not change; Military Expenditure increases (13-23%)
NAP Budget decreases; Military Expenditure increases (1-12%)
No NAP/No NAP Budget (0%)
Resources
  1. "SIPRI Military Expenditure by country," Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 2019. Accessed May 28, 2019. 

  1. Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2018,” SIPRI, 2019. Accessed May 28, 2019.  

55.2%
Participation

31.6%
Percentage of Women's Participation in Parliament

CriteriaThere should be equal participation of women and men in Parliament.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

Women made up 15.8% of the State Duma (the Gosduma, or Lower House) and 18.2% of the Federal Council (Upper House) in Russia in 2018.  

The percentage of women in the State Duma remained stagnant from 2017 to 2018. The percentage of women in the Upper House increased slightly in 2018.  

As Russia fell short of achieving equal (50%-50%) participation of women and men in its Lower House, Russia’s receives a score of 32%. 

Comment

In 2017, women comprised 15.8% of the State Duma and 17.1% of the Federation Council.

MethodologyConsidering that there should be equal participation of men and women in Parliament, a state that ensures 50% of its parliamentarians are females receives 100%. Otherwise, a state earns a grade that depends on the percentage of female parliamentarians employed by a state on the basis of the expected ratio.
Resources

1. “Women in National Parliaments,” Inter Parliamentary Union, 2019. Accessed May 20, 2019. 

19.4%
Percentage of Women's Participation in Ministerial Positions

CriteriaThere should be equal participation of women and men in ministerial positions.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

9.7% of ministerial positions were held by women in Russia in 2018.  As Russia fell short of achieving equal (50%-50%) participation of women and men in ministerial positions, Russia receives a score of 19%. 

Comment

It is important to note that a number of women in positions of power in Russian politics express views that are anti-feminist.  

MethodologyConsidering that there should be equal participation of men and women in the ministerial positions, a state that ensures 50% of its ministers are females receives 100%. Otherwise, a state earns a grade that depends on the percentage of female ministers employed by a state on the basis of the expected ratio.
Resources
  1. “The Global Gender Gap Report 2018,” World Economic Forum, 2018 [Russia, p. 233]. Accessed May 29, 2019. 

  1. Twenty Russian Women Who Matter,” The Moscow Times, 2018. Accessed July 30, 2019.  

 

44.0%
Percentage of Women's Participation in Law Enforcement

CriteriaThere should be equal participation of women and men in law enforcement
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

As of 2017, the most recent figures available, Russia’s police force was comprised of 756,859. As of 2019, roughly 170,000 women served in Russia’s police force. Therefore, PeaceWomen estimates that approximately 22% of Russia’s police force is comprised of women. Because this scorecard scores equal participation of men and women at 50%, Russia receives a score of 44%.

Comment

It is critical to note that discussions of Russian police officers are characterized by tokenism, gender stereotypes and sexism, with discussions surrounding Russian women police officers characterized by a strong focus on the physical attractiveness of these officers. Similarly, one officer has pointed to lack of gender balance in different divisions of policing. For example, in Moscow’s Patrol and Inspection Service (PIS), there were few women. One woman officer assigned to this division from the mounted police division (in which, she estimates, women comprise “roughly one third of the [mounted police] force”) stated that she felt like “an outsider” as one of the few women in a work environment dominated by men. 

MethodologyConsidering that there should be equal participation of men and women in law enforcement, a state that ensures 50% of its law enforcement agents are females receives 100%. Otherwise, a state earns a grade that depends on the percentage of female law enforcement agents employed by a state on the basis of the expected ratio.
Resources
  1. Police Weapons: Russian Federation,” The United States Library of Congress, 2014. Accessed July 31, 2019.*  

  1. Russia’s rebranded police initiated with major layoffs,” RT Russia News, 2011. Accessed July 31, 2019.*  

  1. List of Countries by Number of Police Officers,” World Atlas, 2017. Accessed July 31, 2019.*  

  1. Check Out Russia’s Most Beautiful Police Women,” Russia Beyond, 2019. Accessed July 31, 2019.**

  1. Meet Darya Yusupova, Russia’s most likable policewoman,” Russia Beyond, 2019. Accessed July 31, 2019.**  

*Researcher’s note: There is a dearth of publicly available and readily accessible information on women in law enforcement in the Russian Federation and across the Permanent Five Members of the UN Security Council, illustrating a general need for disaggregated data in this area. 

**Researcher’s note: These sources contain gender-unaware and/or sexist language, but remain the only English or French language sources containing data on the numbers of women in the police forces and report the treatment and lived experiences of Russian women.

70.0%
Percentage of Women's Participation in the Judiciary

CriteriaThere should be equal participation of women and men in the judiciary.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

The most recent statistics available are derived from the 2018 report released by the Council for the Efficiency of Justice’s which evaluates data on the efficiency and quality of justice in 2016 indicates that 60% of the total number of professional justices are women. 

Comment

 

Though women represent a majority of justices in Russia, the available data indicates that the higher the court within the judiciary, the lower the number of women justices.

According to the Council for the Efficiency of Justice, there were 14,813 women justices in “first instance courts,” 646 women justices in second instance courts, and 48 womenjustices in supreme courts in Russia in 2012. 

In 2014, Russia only provided data surrounding the percentages of women judges in courts of the first instance. Women comprised 59% of the judiciary in courts of the first instance. 34% of presidents of courts of the first instance were women, with 0% of women presidents of supreme courts.

MethodologyConsidering that there should be equal participation of men and women in the judiciary, a state that ensures 50% of its judges are females receives 100%. Otherwise, a state earns a grade that depends on the percentage of female judges employed by a state on the basis of the expected ratio.
Resources
  1. Russian Federation: Appointment and Promotion of Judges; Security of Tenure,” International Commission of Jurists, 2014. Accessed July 31, 2019. 
  2. Why are the majority of Russian judges female?” Russian Beyond, 2016. Accessed July 31, 2019. 
  3. Report on ‘European judicial systems – Edition 2014 (2012 data): efficiency and quality of justice,’" The Council for the Efficiency of Justice, 2014. Accessed July 31, 2019. 
  4. European judicial systems Efficiency and quality of justice CEPEJ Studies No. 23,” The Council of Justice, 2016. Accessed July 31, 2019. 
  5. European judicial systems Efficiency and quality of justice CEPEJ Studies No. 26,” The Council of Justice, 2018. Accessed July 31, 2019

69.0%
Percentage of Women's Participation in the Labour Force

CriteriaWomen should have equal access to employment opportunities.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

 

In 2018, 69% of women participate in the labour force (compared to 80% of men). This represents a slight (0.4%) increase in women's participation from 2017.

Women’s salaries, on average, were 30% lower than men’s salaries in 2018.

Comment

Russia retains a number of sexist and gender discriminatory policies and attitudes towards women in the workplace, which remains gender segregated (despite a positive trajectory of improvement over the last twenty years). For example, in Russia, it remains illegal for women to lift weights over 10kg more than twice an hour when they’re at work, barring women from 456 professions across 38 different industries (including carpentry, plumbing, and public transportation, among other professions). Though Russian women are challenging these laws, the laws remained unchanged in 2018.

MethodologyData collected from the Gender Gap Index (GGI) on the basis of its methodology.
Resources

  1. “The Global Gender Gap Report 2018,” World Economic Forum, 2018 [Russia, p. 233]. Accessed May 29, 2019.
  2. The Woman Worker and Peasant in Soviet Russia,” Alexandra Kollontai, 1921. Accessed July 31, 2019. 
  3. The Competing Demands for Women’s Labor: the Role of  Women in Long‐Term Care Provision in the Russian Federation,” Kings College London Social Care Workforce Research Unit, 2009. Accessed July 31, 2019.  
  4. In Russia, It’s a Woman’s Job to Challenge Soviet-Era Labour Laws,” The Moscow Times, 2017. Accessed July 31, 2019. 
  5. In Russia, gender equality still a long way off,” The AP News, 2019. Accessed July 31, 2019. 

97.0%
Access to Education

CriteriaThere should be equal access to all levels of education.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis

Enrolment in primary education: 97.0%

Enrolment in secondary education: 95.0%

Enrolment in tertiary education: 89.3%

School enrolment remains marginally higher for girls and women than it is for boys and men. 

Comment

N/A 

MethodologyData collected from the Gender Gap Index (GGI) and UNESCO, developed on the basis of their respective methodologies.
Resources

1. “The Global Gender Gap Report 2018,” World Economic Forum, 2018 [Russia, p. 233]. Accessed May 29, 2019.

39.6%
Protection

55.6%
Presence of Gendered Perspective in Legal Framework

CriteriaGender should be mainstreamed throughout legal framework in accordance with the international law.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis Legal framework in Russia includes the following gender-sensitive laws and constitutional provisions in 2018:
Women and men are guaranteed the rights to vote, to hold public office, and to exercise public functions
Gender perspective incorporated into the constitution
Women and men are guaranteed the right to non-discrimination in education, employment and economic, and social activities
Women and men are guaranteed full equality in civil and business matters
Women and men are guaranteed equal rights and obligations with regard to choice of spouse, parenthood, personal rights, and command over property
Women and men are guaranteed reproductive rights
Women and men are guaranteed equal pay for equal work
Women and men are guaranteed the right to live lives free from violence
Gender sensitive laws and constitutional previsions
Comment

In 2016, the Russian legislature decriminalised domestic violence, so that offenses that do not result in serious injury will be payable by a fine, and only second offenses will be considered a crime. In 2017, regressive amendments made to domestic violence law, which came into effect on 1 July 2017, release husbands from criminal responsibility — with some minor exceptions — for acts of physical violence against their spouses.

Russia has not enacted a comprehensive gender equality law, and “neither the Constitution...nor other appropriate legislation, contains a definition of discrimination or expressly prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sex." In 2005, the Parliament Assembly of the members of the Commonwealth of Independent States adopted the Model Law “On State Guarantees of Equality of Rights and Opportunities for Men and Women.” The General Victim and Witness Protection Law was also enacted in 2004 and amended most recently in 2013. Although there are some law provisions prohibiting discrimination, they usually do not regulate gender discrimination separately. Russia has no law guaranteeing equal opportunities for men and women in employment or education.

Methodology8 - 100%
7 - 87.5%
6 - 75%
5 - 62.5%
4 - 50%
3 - 37.5%
2 - 25%
1 - 12.5%
0 - 0%

Necessary legal framework is determined in accordance with the principles of the core human rights treaties (i.e.: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Covenant on Civil and political Rights (ICCPR), the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)).
Resources

  1. "Russia - Constitution," International Constitutional Law Project, 1994. Accessed June 3, 2019. 
  2. "Constitutional Provisions on Women's Equality," Library of Congress, 2011. Accessed June 3, 2019. 
  3. "Russian Lawmakers Are Giving Abusers a Green Light" The Guardian, 2017. Accessed June 3, 2019.

42.9%
Access to Justice

CriteriaWomen's unrestricted access to justice exists.
Analysis/Comments
Analysis The following protections are guaranteed by Russia in 2018:
Equal access to formal legal dispute systems and the right to legal representation
Non-discrimination law
Existence of courts and judicial bodies
Financial affordability of access to legal proceedings and/or legal aid
Free access to an interpreter during legal proceedings
Victim protection
Existence of gender units within justice institutions
Comment

Researcher’s note: According to the National Center for the Prevention of Violence (ANNA), Russia has “no established system of assistance to victims”of domestic violence.

MethodologyThe necessary protections represent the CEDAW standard on women's access to justice.
7 - 100%
6 - 85%
5 - 70%
4 - 55%
3 - 40%
2 - 25%
1 - 10%
0 - 0%"
Resources

  1. "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers [Mission to the Russian Federation]," Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2014. UN Doc ID: A/HRC/26/32/Add.1. Accessed June 4, 3019. 
  2. "The Language of Court Proceedings and Clerical Work at Law-Enforcement Bodies," Saint Petersburg University, 1997. Accessed June 4, 2019. [Interpreters]

0.0%
Protections Against Human Trafficking

CriteriaA state should be in compliance with minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking in persons.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia in 2018 is in:
Complete compliance with the minimum standards
Partial compliance with the minimum standards
Non-compliance with the minimum standards
Comment

The Russian government does not fully comply with the minimum standards* for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.

*Researcher’s note on applied standards: Our minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking in persons reflect those outlined in the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, which Russia signed in 2003 and subsequently ratified in 2004, and the United States' Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPRA), which aims to improve implementation of and fill national policy gaps related to the elimination of human trafficking. The United States' State Department's annual Trafficking in Persons reports, the primary source employed in our evaluation, assess the efforts undertaken by nation states surrounding the central aims of the TVPRA: protection, prevention and prosecution. For more detailed discussions concerning these standards, check out our resources below.

MethodologyAdherence is measured in accordance with the “Palermo Protocols” and grading system developed by the US state Department’s annual report on trafficking in persons.
Full compliance: 100%
Partial Compliance: 50%
Non-Compliance: 0%

Resources

 

  1. "2019 Trafficking in Persons Report," The United States Department of State, 2019* [Methodology at pps. 38- 45; Russia at pps. 362-3]. Accessed June 4, 2019. [Full report]
  2. "2019 Trafficking in Persons Report: Russia," The United States Department of State, 2019*. Accessed June 4, 2019. [Russia only]
  3. "Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime," United Nations, 2000. Accessed June 4, 2019. 
  4. "Summary of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) and Reauthorizations FY 2017," Alliance to End Slavery and Trafficking (ATEST), 2017. Accessed June 4, 2019.
  5. Putin Doesn’t Care About Sex Trafficking,” Foreign Policy, 2018. Accessed August 6, 2019.  

*Researcher's Note: The 2019 Trafficking in Persons Report covers government efforts to combat human trafficking undertaken from April 1, 2018 through March 31, 2019. Reports are typically released in June.

60.0%
Protections Against Sexual Violence.

CriteriaA state should be in compliance with minimum standards for the elimination of sexual violence.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia in 2018 has the following services in place:
Existence of a law against sexual violence
Governmental efforts to eliminate sexual violence nationally
Existence of a national crisis hotline
Existence of women's shelters
Existence of women's rape crisis centres
Comment

 

A systemic approach to protecting against sexual violence does not exist at the government level. In 2017 and 2018, hard-won legislative protections surrounding the criminalisation of domestic violence have been rolled back

Though figures vary across sources, the Russian interior ministry estimates that 600,000 women are victims of domestic abuse and 14,000 die from injuries inflicted by husbands or partners each year.

MethodologyThe standard is derived from the CEDAW and Istanbul Convention.
5 - 100%
4 - 80%
3 - 60%
2 - 40%
1 - 20%
0 - 0%
Resources

  1. "Global Database on Violence Against Women: Russian Federation," UN Women, 2018. Accessed June 4, 2019. 

  2. "CEDAW Committee issues first decision on domestic violence in Russia," Stichting [sic] Justice Initiative, 2019. Accessed June 4, 2019. 

  3. "Russian Human Rights Official Admits Softening Domestic Violence Laws Was 'A Mistake'," Time, 2018. Accessed June 4, 2019. 

  4. "Russia: Unaddressed Violence Puts Women at Risk," Human Rights Watch, 2019. Accessed June 4, 2019. 

  5. "49% of Russian Women Say They Are Most at Risk of Violence at Home, Poll Says," The Moscow Times, 2018. Accessed June 4, 2019.

64.4%
Recovery Support

60.0%
Implementation of Dedicated Programmes Serving the Needs of Veterans

CriteriaDedicated programmes for female veterans should be in place.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia in 2018 provides the following services:
Female veterans affairs offices exist in urban and rural areas
Economic benefits (i.e. disability, housing) exist
Health service benefits (i.e. free veterans health insurance, gender-sensitive PTSD care) exist
Educational benefits exist
Employment services exist
Comment

The Russian Federation’s federal law on veterans is not gender sensitive, although it provides regulations on services and other rights awarded to all military veterans (including women).  

In 2018, there was some discussion surrounding government provision of social protection for mercenaries (private military contractors, or “PMCs”). These discussions resulted in neither amendments to existing legislation nor the drafting of new legislation.   

MethodologyThe standard is determined in line with the international concept of the responsibility to protect. A state receives a full point only when it is in full compliance with the determined obligation.
5 - 100%
4 - 80%
3 - 60%
2 - 40%
1 - 20%
0 - 0%

Resources
  1. "The Role of Women in Russia's Armed Forces," Jamestown Foundation, 2013. Accessed June 19, 2019. 

  2. "Russian Legislation on Veterans,” Consultant Plus, 1995. Accessed June 19, 2019. 
  3. Veteran’s Policy in Russia: Puzzle of Creation,” The Journal of Power Institutions in Post-Soviet Societies, 2007. Accessed June 4, 2019. 
  4. Russian Vets seek to bring Kremlin’s mercenaries in from the cold,” CNN, 2018. Accessed June 19, 2019.

83.3%
Implementation of Dedicated Programmes to Support Survivors of Sexual Violence

CriteriaDedicated programmes for survivors of sexual violence should be in place.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia in 2018 provides the following services:
National crisis hotline
Women's shelters
Women's rape crisis centres
Counseling services
National sex-offender list or website
Support groups for victims/survivors
Comment

See above section on “Protections Against Sexual Violence,” for additional resources and discussion.  

Researcher's note: there is limited data surrounding women's shelters, support groups, counseling services and rape crisis centres. Guided by women's civil society, the Russian Federation should take steps to collect this data and incorporate their findings into government planning and action. 

MethodologyThe standard is determined in line with the CEDAW, Istanbul Convention and Beijing Platform for Action. A state receives a full point only when it is in full compliance with the determined obligation.
6 - 100%
5 - 83%
4 - 66%
3 - 49%
2 - 32%
1 - 15%
0 - 0%.
Resources
  1. "Violence Against Women in the Russian Federation," The Advocates for Human Rights. Accessed June 19, 2019. 

  2. "Domestic Violence Against Women in the Russian Federation," ANNA National Centre for the Prevention of Violence, 2015. Accessed June 19, 2019. 

  3. "Country Report: 2016, Women Against Violence Europe, 2017. Accessed June 19, 2019. 

  4. Russia,” Rape Crisis Network Europe, 2019. Accessed June 3, 2019.

14.3%
Implementation of Dedicated Programmes to Support Survivors of Human Trafficking

CriteriaDedicated programmes for urvivors of human trafficking should be in place.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia in 2018 provides the following services:
Human trafficking hotline
Human trafficking shelter
Basic necessities (food, clothing, housing, etc.)
Health services
Legal services
Job training programmes
Educational services
Comment

 

Excerpt from the 2019 Trafficking in Persons Report*: 

“...The Russian government did not provide funding or programs for protective services dedicated to trafficking victims. Without specific legislation differentiating trafficking victims from victims of other crimes, government agencies claimed they had neither the means nor authority to provide assistance programs specifically for trafficking victims. NGOs provided all protection services, including shelter, food, legal services, language interpretation, facilitating the return of documents or wages, and assisting in the resettlement or repatriation of victims. The last dedicated trafficking shelters closed in 2015 due to lack of funding; however, government-funded homeless shelters could accommodate Russian and foreign victims. Authorities did not routinely screen potential victims seeking assistance at these shelters for trafficking indicators; in prior years, the shelter provided medical and psychiatric aid, and referred victims to international NGOs and other homeless shelters located in many of Russia’s regions. There were no reports of victims assisted in these shelters in 2018. A shelter “for women in difficult life situations,” run by the Russian Orthodox Church, continued to accept victims and offered them food housing and psychological care, although not medical assistance; the government did not provide financial support for the shelter.

Similar to the previous reporting period, the government took steps to limit or ban the activities of other civil society groups, including some dedicated to anti-trafficking activities. Further, the government’s efforts to exert pressure on NGOs through the implementation of restrictive laws also targeted those providing protective services for trafficking victims; the government continued to designate two locally registered NGOs working on trafficking issues as “foreign agents” and blocked one of these NGOs from a government-linked social media site in 2018. An unknown person attacked and stabbed the leader of an anti-trafficking NGO, inflicting non-fatal wounds. The “Yarovaya” package of anti-terror laws made it a crime for individuals or organizations to provide material assistance to people considered to be in Russia illegally; authorities could prosecute NGOs who assist unlawfully present victims of trafficking.”

*See resource no. 2, below.

MethodologyThe standard is determined in line with Palermo Protocol and Beijing Platform for Action. A state receives a full point only when it is in full compliance with the determined obligation.
7 - 100%
6 - 85%
5 - 70%
4 - 55%
3 - 40%
2 - 25%
1 - 10%
0 - 0%

Resources

  1. "2019 Trafficking in Persons Report," The United States Department of State, 2019 [Methodology at pps. 38- 45; Russia at pps. 362-3]. Accessed June 4, 2019. [Fullreport]

  2. "2019 Trafficking in Persons Report: Russia," The United States Department of State, 2019. Accessed June 4, 2019. [Russia only]

  3. "Human trafficking in the Russian Federation: an examination of the anti-trafficking efforts of the federal government, non-governmental organisations and the International Organization for Migration," Iowa Research Online, 2010. Accessed June 4, 2019. 

*Researcher's note: The 2019 Trafficking in Persons Report covers government efforts to combat human trafficking undertaken from April 1, 2018 through March 31, 2019. Reports are typically released in June.

100.0%
Implementation Dedicated Programmes to Support Refugees, Asylum Seekers, and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)

CriteriaDedicated programmes for refugees, asylum seekers, and IDPs should be in place.
Analysis/Comments
AnalysisRussia in 2018 provides the following services:
State refugee/IDP strategy exists
Basic necessities (food, clothing, housing, etc.) are provided
Health services are available
Legal services are available
Job training programmes are available
Educational services are available
Community engagement/integration programmes are available
Comment

 

Total population of refugees, stateless persons, IDPs, and asylum-seekers: 201,389.

MethodologyThe standard is determined in line with the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) recommendations. A state receives a full point only when it is in full compliance with the determined obligation.
7 - 100%
6 - 85%
5 - 70%
4 - 55%
3 - 40%
2 - 25%
1 - 10%
0 - 0%

Resources

  1. "Refugee Law and Policy: Russian Federation," Library of Congress. Accessed June 4, 2019. 

  2. "The Integration of Refugees, Asylum Seekers, and IDPs in the Russian Federation," European University Institute, Robert Shuman Center for Advanced Studies, September, 2013. Accessed June 4, 2019. 

  3. "Russian Federation," International Organization for Migration (IOM). Accessed June 4, 2019. 

  4. "Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016," UNHCR, 2017. Accessed June 4, 2019.